Sample collection and storage
Inadequate sample collection, storage, or transport can have a considerable effect on the results of physiological marker analyses or even render them unusable. Therefore, proper collection and storage of samples are crucial for obtaining reliable results. The method and frequency of sampling vary depending on the sample type, study design, species, and their living conditions (e.g., zoo or wild). For this reason, the exact procedures should be individually coordinated in advance.
Regular Sample Collection
- A single marker analysis is usually not enough to reliably assess the physiological status. Samples generally need to be collected repeatedly over extended periods.
- For example, an elevated progestagen concentration in a blood, urine, or fecal sample does not necessarily indicate pregnancy. It could also point to the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.
Challenges
- The quantity and quality of samples must always be ensured.
- Contamination (e.g., urine with feces) or improper storage (e.g., fecal samples in alcohol for extended periods) can distort or invalidate the results.
- Too large sample volumes should be avoided (more information on this topic).
Storage
- Freezing at a minimum of -10°C is the preferred method for all sample types.
- Alternatively, in specific cases, such as field research, fecal samples can be extracted in the field, and the extracts can be stored. Proven protocols for this are available.
Sample tubes and labeling
- The tubes must match the sample size and type (available upon request).
- Ensure precise labeling (using special labels and pencil) to avoid loss of sample information.
- A sample list (e.g., Excel) with relevant notes is recommended.
Transport and permits
- When transporting samples from non-EU countries, export and import permits are generally required (e.g., under animal disease regulations or CITES).
- Since the permitting process often takes several weeks, it is advisable to gather all necessary information in advance and contact us early if needed.
Consultation on sample collection
Detailed information on sample collection, handling, and storage of non-invasive marker measurements under zoo and field conditions can be found in the following articles.
- Behringer V; Sonnweber R; Hohmann G; Stevens JMG; Verspeek J; Kivell TL. (2024)
A non‐invasive measure of bone growth in mammals: Validating urinary CTX‐I as a bone resorption marker through long‐bone growth velocity in bonobos.
Ecol. Evol. 14(9): e70326 - DOI - - Sadoughi B; Girard-Buttoz C; Engelhardt A; Heistermann M; Ostner J. (2021)
Non-invasive assessment of metabolic responses to food restriction using urinary triiodothyronine and cortisol measurement in macaques.
Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 306: 113736 - DOI - - Danish LM; Heistermann M; Agil M; Engelhardt A. (2015)
Validation of a novel collection device for non-invasive urine sampling from free-ranging animals.
PloS One 10(11): e0142051 - DOI - - Heistermann M; Higham JP. (2015)
Urinary neopterin, a non-invasive marker of mammalian cellular immune activation, is highly stable under field conditions.
Sci. Rep. 5: 16308 - DOI - - Kalbitzer U; Heistermann M. (2013)
Long-term storage effects in steroid metabolite extracts from baboon (Papio sp.) faeces - a comparison of three commonly applied storage methods.
Methods Ecol. Evol. 4: 493-500 - DOI - - Higham JP; Girard-Buttoz C; Engelhardt A; Heistermann M. (2011)
Urinary C-peptide of insulin as a non-invasive marker of nutritional status: some practicalities.
PloS One 6(7): e22398 - DOI - - Hodges JK, Heistermann M. (2011)
Field endocrinology: guidelines, methods and applications for monitoring hormonal changes in free-ranging primates. In: Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology: A Practical Guide. J. M. Setchell, D.J. Curtis, eds.
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 353-370 - Heistermann, M. (2010)
Non-invasive monitoring of endocrine status in laboratory primates: methods, guidelines and applications.
Adv. Sci. Res. 5: 1-9 - DOI - - Hodges, J.K.; Brown, J.L. & Heistermann, M. (2010)
Endocrine monitoring of reproduction and stress. In: Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques for Zoo Management. Kleiman, D.G., Thompson, K.V., Kirk Baer, C., eds.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, pp 447-468